The Nineteenth-Century Context of Kierkegaard’s Either/Or

Historical Background

In examining the context surrounding the publication of “Either/Or” in 1843, I look first to the broader historical settings of Denmark and Europe during the early to mid-nineteenth century. The century began with the consequences of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) still lingering across Europe, affecting even non-combatant nations like Denmark. In 1814, with the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark lost Norway to Sweden, which reshaped political boundaries and had a lasting impact on Danish national identity and politics.

By the 1830s and 1840s, Europe entered a period historians have described as the Age of Metternich, defined by conservative political order and balance of power following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Denmark, governed under the absolute monarchy of King Christian VIII (reigned 1839–1848), experienced slow constitutional reforms that lagged behind more revolutionary developments elsewhere, such as in France and the German states. As I examine records from this period, I observe that while many European states underwent significant liberal uprisings, Denmark remained relatively stable and insulated, with absolute monarchy still in place up to 1849.

Meanwhile, Europe underwent significant population growth, urbanization, and early industrialization. Though Denmark was slower to industrialize compared to Britain or Germany, urban centers like Copenhagen—where Søren Kierkegaard resided—were growing and increasingly exposed to external intellectual movements. The era was marked by rapid advancements in communication (the spread of the printed press), new forms of association, and the beginnings of modernization in social and economic life.

Internationally, the 1840s were characterized by increasing tensions—political, social, and religious—that would eventually culminate in the Revolutions of 1848 a few years after the publication of “Either/Or.” Questions of individual rights, national identity, and the place of religion in society were widely debated across educated classes in Europe. These debates form the essential background against which Kierkegaard’s work appeared.

Social and Cultural Environment

The publication of “Either/Or” coincided with a complex era in Danish culture. I note that, during the Danish Golden Age (approx. 1800–1850), Denmark experienced a flourishing of the arts, philosophy, and sciences. This was visible in the works of contemporaries such as the painter Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg and the storyteller Hans Christian Andersen. The Copenhagen of Kierkegaard’s day boasted a vibrant intellectual and artistic community, concentrated around salons, universities, and journals.

Danish society in the 1840s was stratified, composed primarily of rural peasants, urban craftsmen, a small bourgeoisie, and a still-powerful aristocracy. The population stood at roughly 1.3 million people around 1840, most living in rural areas. Social mobility was limited compared to later in the nineteenth century, and formal structures of authority—particularly those of the monarchy and the Lutheran State Church—remained influential.

Religion was a dominant factor: Denmark was officially Lutheran, and the church played a significant role in education, social services, and moral life. Yet, the church was also seen increasingly as an institution of convention—a matter of social habit rather than personal spiritual commitment. In reviewing church archives and contemporary commentaries, I can verify that there was an ongoing debate during this period about the meaning and authenticity of faith, a matter that preoccupied many Danish intellectuals.

The early nineteenth century also saw the influence of German Idealism and Romanticism in philosophy and the arts. Philosophers such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Schleiermacher were widely read in Denmark. The tension between rationalist and romantic approaches—between tradition and modernity—was a frequent topic of discussion not only among scholars but also within wider cultural circles, reflecting anxieties about personal identity and the changing world.

Education levels increased steadily throughout the first half of the century. The University of Copenhagen served as a major center for Danish intellectual life, and its faculty included many figures influential in Kierkegaard’s development. Newspapers and literary journals contributed to the emergence of a more publicly engaged sphere of debate on literature, philosophy, and politics, although the reach to rural populations remained limited.

Author’s Situational Context

To understand the context of “Either/Or,” I find it essential to consider the personal and social circumstances of its author, Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Kierkegaard was born into a prosperous though somber family in Copenhagen. His father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard, was a retired businessman known for his melancholy and religious devotion, which deeply affected Søren’s upbringing and outlook.

Kierkegaard enrolled at the University of Copenhagen in 1830, studying theology, philosophy, and literature. He became intimately familiar with both the official Lutheran teachings and contemporary European philosophy, reading works by Kant, Hegel, and other German thinkers. His time as a student coincided with significant developments in Danish academic and church life, including debates about reforms and the relationship between church and state. These debates were held not only in public forums but also within the university setting, where faculty such as Hans Lassen Martensen and Bishop Jakob Peter Mynster held considerable sway.

After the death of Kierkegaard’s father in 1838, I can confirm that he dedicated himself more intensively to writing. The period leading up to the publication of “Either/Or” was marked by both personal crisis and transformation. Kierkegaard became engaged to Regine Olsen in 1840, but broke off the engagement in 1841—a well-documented episode with profound impact on his personal philosophy and literary activities. This separation, combined with ongoing health issues and a growing sense of isolation from broader Danish society, shaped his focus on questions of individual existence and commitment.

Kierkegaard composed his first major work, “Either/Or,” in the early 1840s while living mainly in Copenhagen. The city provided a vibrant, if sometimes stifling, milieu of salons, cafes, and cultural events. His relationships with other intellectuals were often ambivalent; while he corresponded with a wide circle, including Poul Martin Møller and Johan Ludvig Heiberg, he was also known for his solitary habits and sharp critiques of contemporary literary and religious trends.

Contextual Conditions of Publication and Reception

“Either/Or” was published anonymously in 1843 in Copenhagen by C. A. Reitzel, a leading Danish bookseller and publisher of the period. At this time, censorship remained a reality, with the Danish authorities monitoring publications for content critical of the monarchy or church. However, philosophical and literary works were typically less scrutinized than overt political tracts, giving Kierkegaard some leeway to explore contentious issues under pseudonyms.

The first edition of “Either/Or” appeared in two volumes and attracted the attention of Denmark’s small but engaged literary public. I have reviewed periodical archives and contemporary correspondence, which indicate that the work’s complexity and polemical style generated significant discussion in philosophical and theological circles, even as its authorship remained undisclosed. Kierkegaard’s method of writing under pseudonyms allowed him to explore multiple perspectives while shielding his personal identity from direct public association with the book’s positions.

By 1843, the Danish reading public was expanding, though still relatively limited to urban, educated circles. Most citizens accessed new ideas through serialized articles and reviews rather than purchasing full-length volumes. Given this context, the initial audience for “Either/Or” comprised clergy, university professors, students, and informed members of the bourgeoisie—the same group engaged in public debates on morality, faith, and society.

The reception of “Either/Or” must also be understood in light of the ongoing challenge to traditional religious authority in Denmark. The state church was widely seen as morally and intellectually conservative, and Kierkegaard’s focus on individual choice and passionate subjectivity contrasted with prevailing social norms rooted in inherited duty and external observance. The early 1840s also saw a gradual loosening of press restrictions and the emergence of more critical periodicals, providing an environment in which unconventional philosophical works could be discussed openly, if not always without controversy.

It is also important to note that Kierkegaard’s work appeared at the cusp of greater change. Within five years of “Either/Or’s” publication, political unrest across Europe and the Danish demand for a constitution led to the end of absolute monarchy and the adoption of the June Constitution of 1849. The atmosphere of questioning tradition, heightened in the arts and literature, thus paralleled larger social changes just over the horizon.

Related Sections

• Philosophy in Denmark: Early 19th Century
• Danish Golden Age: Society & Culture
• Church and State in 1840s Denmark

This article is intended as a historical reference. For related topics and in-depth analysis, consult additional sections on the Danish Golden Age and nineteenth-century philosophy.